Lucas N. Alegre

We introduce a principled method for performing zero-shot transfer in reinforcement learning (RL) by exploiting approximate models of the environment. Zero-shot transfer in RL has been investigated by leveraging methods rooted in generalized policy improvement (GPI) and successor features (SFs). Although computationally efficient, these methods are model-free: they analyze a library of policies—each solving a particular task—and identify which action the agent should take. We investigate the more general setting where, in addition to a library of policies, the agent has access to an approximate environment model. Even though model-based RL algorithms can identify near-optimal policies, they are typically computationally intensive. We introduce h-GPI, a multi-step extension of GPI that interpolates between these extremes—standard model-free GPI and full model-based planning—as a function of a parameter, h, regulating the amount of time the agent has to reason. We prove that h-GPI’s performance lower bound is strictly better than GPI’s, and show that h-GPI generally outperforms GPI as h increases. Furthermore, we prove that as h increases, h-GPI’s performance becomes arbitrarily less susceptible to sub-optimality in the agent’s policy library. Finally, we introduce novel bounds characterizing the gains achievable by h-GPI as a function of approximation errors in both the agent’s policy library and its (possibly learned) model. These bounds strictly generalize those known in the literature. We evaluate h-GPI on challenging tabular and continuous-state problems under value function approximation and show that it consistently outperforms GPI and state-of-the-art competing methods under various levels of approximation errors.

Multi-objective reinforcement learning algorithms (MORL) extend standard reinforcement learning (RL) to scenarios where agents must optimize multiple—potentially conflicting—objectives, each represented by a distinct reward function. To facilitate and accelerate research and benchmarking in multi-objective RL problems, we introduce a comprehensive collection of software libraries that includes: (i) MO-Gymnasium, an easy-to-use and flexible API enabling the rapid construction of novel MORL environments. It also includes more than 20 environments under this API. This allows researchers to effortlessly evaluate any algorithms on any existing domains; (ii) MORL-Baselines, a collection of reliable and efficient implementations of state-of-the-art MORL algorithms, designed to provide a solid foundation for advancing research. Notably, all algorithms are inherently compatible with MO-Gymnasium; and (iii) a thorough and robust set of benchmark results and comparisons of MORL-Baselines algorithms, tested across various challenging MO-Gymnasium environments. These benchmarks were constructed to serve as guidelines for the research community, underscoring the properties, advantages, and limitations of each particular state-of-the-art method.

Multi-objective reinforcement learning (MORL) algorithms tackle sequential decision problems where agents may have different preferences over (possibly conflicting) reward functions. Such algorithms often learn a set of policies (each optimized for a particular agent preference) that can later be used to solve problems with novel preferences. We introduce a novel algorithm that uses Generalized Policy Improvement (GPI) to define principled, formally-derived prioritization schemes that improve sample-efficient learning. They implement active-learning strategies by which the agent can (i) identify the most promising preferences/objectives to train on at each moment, to more rapidly solve a given MORL problem; and (ii) identify which previous experiences are most relevant when learning a policy for a particular agent preference, via a novel Dyna-style MORL method. We prove our algorithm is guaranteed to always converge to an optimal solution in a finite number of steps, or an ϵ-optimal solution (for a bounded ϵ) if the agent is limited and can only identify possibly sub-optimal policies. We also prove that our method monotonically improves the quality of its partial solutions while learning. Finally, we introduce a bound that characterizes the maximum utility loss (with respect to the optimal solution) incurred by the partial solutions computed by our method throughout learning. We empirically show that our method outperforms state-of-the-art MORL algorithms in challenging multi-objective tasks, both with discrete and continuous state spaces.

In many real-world applications, reinforcement learning (RL) agents might have to solve multiple tasks, each one typically modeled via a reward function. If reward functions are expressed linearly, and the agent has previously learned a set of policies for different tasks, successor features (SFs) can be exploited to combine such policies and identify reasonable solutions for new problems. However, the identified solutions are not guaranteed to be optimal. We introduce a novel algorithm that addresses this limitation. It allows RL agents to combine existing policies and directly identify optimal policies for arbitrary new problems, without requiring any further interactions with the environment. We first show (under mild assumptions) that the transfer learning problem tackled by SFs is equivalent to the problem of learning to optimize multiple objectives in RL. We then introduce an SF-based extension of the Optimistic Linear Support algorithm to learn a set of policies whose SFs form a convex coverage set. We prove that policies in this set can be combined via generalized policy improvement to construct optimal behaviors for any new linearly-expressible tasks, without requiring any additional training samples. We empirically show that our method outperforms state-of-the-art competing algorithms both in discrete and continuous domains under value function approximation.

Non-stationary environments are challenging for reinforcement learning algorithms. If the state transition and/or reward functions change based on latent factors, the agent is effectively tasked with optimizing a behavior that maximizes performance over a possibly infinite random sequence of Markov Decision Processes (MDPs), each of which drawn from some unknown distribution. We call each such MDP a context. Most related works make strong assumptions such as knowledge about the distribution over contexts, the existence of pre-training phases, or a priori knowledge about the number, sequence, or boundaries between contexts. We introduce an algorithm that efficiently learns policies in non-stationary environments. It analyzes a possibly infinite stream of data and computes, in real-time, high-confidence change-point detection statistics that reflect whether novel, specialized policies need to be created and deployed to tackle novel contexts, or whether previously-optimized ones might be reused. We show that (i) this algorithm minimizes the delay until unforeseen changes to a context are detected, thereby allowing for rapid responses; and (ii) it bounds the rate of false alarm, which is important in order to minimize regret. Our method constructs a mixture model composed of a (possibly infinite) ensemble of probabilistic dynamics predictors that model the different modes of the distribution over underlying latent MDPs. We evaluate our algorithm on high-dimensional continuous reinforcement learning problems and show that it outperforms state-of-the-art (model-free and model-based) RL algorithms, as well as state-of-the-art meta-learning methods specially designed to deal with non-stationarity.

Reinforcement learning is an efficient, widely used machine learning technique that performs well in problems with a reasonable number of states and actions. This is rarely the case regarding control-related problems, as for instance controlling traffic signals, where the state space can be very large. One way to deal with the curse of dimensionality is to use generalization techniques such as function approximation. In this paper, a linear function approximation is used by traffic signal agents in a network of signalized intersections. Specifically, a true online SARSA (λ) algorithm with Fourier basis functions (TOS(λ)-FB) is employed. This method has the advantage of having convergence guarantees and error bounds, a drawback of non-linear function approximation. In order to evaluate TOS(λ)-FB, we perform experiments in variations of an isolated intersection scenario and a scenario of the city of Cottbus, Germany, with 22 signalized intersections, implemented in MATSim. We compare our results not only to fixed-time controllers, but also to a state-of-the-art rule-based adaptive method, showing that TOS(λ)-FB shows a performance that is highly superior to the fixed-time, while also being at least as efficient as the rule-based approach. For more than half of the intersections, our approach leads to less congestion and delay, without the need for the knowledge that underlies the rule-based approach.

Reinforcement learning is an efficient, widely used machine learning technique that performs well when the state and action spaces have a reasonable size. This is rarely the case regarding control-related problems, as for instance controlling traffic signals. Here, the state space can be very large. In order to deal with the curse of dimensionality, a rough discretization of such space can be employed. However, this is effective just up to a certain point. A way to mitigate this is to use techniques that generalize the state space such as function approximation. In this paper, a linear function approximation is used. Specifically, SARSA(λ) with Fourier basis features is implemented to control traffic signals in the agent-based transport simulation MATSim. The results are compared not only to trivial controllers such as fixed-time, but also to state-of-the-art rule-based adaptive methods. It is concluded that SARSA(λ) with Fourier basis features is able to outperform such methods, especially in scenarios with varying traffic demands or unexpected events.

In reinforcement learning (RL), dealing with non-stationarity is a challenging issue. However, some domains such as traffic optimization are inherently non-stationary. Causes for and effects of this are manifold. In particular, when dealing with traffic signal controls, addressing non-stationarity is key since traffic conditions change over time and as a function of traffic control decisions taken in other parts of a network. In this paper we analyze the effects that different sources of non-stationarity have in a network of traffic signals, in which each signal is modeled as a learning agent. More precisely, we study both the effects of changing the context in which an agent learns (e.g., a change in flow rates experienced by it), as well as the effects of reducing agent observability of the true environment state. Partial observability may cause distinct states (in which distinct actions are optimal) to be seen as the same by the traffic signal agents. This, in turn, may lead to sub-optimal performance. We show that the lack of suitable sensors to provide a representative observation of the real state seems to affect the performance more drastically than the changes to the underlying traffic patterns.

We introduce SelfieArt, an interactive technique for performing multi-style transfer for portraits and videos. Our method provides a simple and intuitive way of producing exquisite artistic results that combine multiple styles in a harmonious fashion. It uses face parsing and a multi-style transfer model to apply different styles to the various semantic segments. This is achieved using parameterized soft masks, allowing users to adjust the smoothness of the transitions between stylized regions in real-time. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our solution on a large set of images and videos. Given its flexibility, speed, and quality of results, our solution can be a valuable tool for creative exploration, allowing anyone to transform photographs and drawings in world-class artistic results.

We introduce a machine learning technique to autonomously generate novel melodies that are variations of an arbitrary base melody. These are produced by a neural network that ensures that (with high probability) the melodic and rhythmic structure of the new melody is consistent with a given set of sample songs. We train a Variational Autoencoder network to identify a low-dimensional set of variables that allows for the compression and representation of sample songs. By perturbing these variables with Perlin Noise—a temporally-consistent parameterized noise function—it is possible to generate smoothly-changing novel melodies. We show that (1) by regulating the amount of noise, one can specify how much of the base song will be preserved; and (2) there is a direct correlation between the noise signal and the differences between the statistical properties of novel melodies and the original one. Users can interpret the controllable noise as a type of "creativity knob": the higher it is, the more leeway the network has to generate significantly different melodies. We present a physical prototype that allows musicians to use a keyboard to provide base melodies and to adjust the network’s "creativity knobs" to regulate in real-time the process that proposes new melody ideas.